The
Soviet space program used to be run through a complex structure that
involved several different ministries, committees, and commissions.
Between 1965 and 1991, the so-called Ministry of General Machine Building
(MOM) designed and built spacecraft while the Strategic Missile Forces
operated all launch vehicles and space vehicles for the government. With
the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Russia formed the Russian Space
Agency (RKA) on February 25, 1992, directly under the Russian Federal
Congress. The RKA operates its launchers from Plesetsk in northern Russia
and the famous Baikonur launch base in the newly independent country of
Kazakhstan. RKA signed a cooperative agreement with ten other newly
independent former Soviet republics in December 1991 (the Minsk
declaration), to operate assets jointly. RKA recently merged with an
aviation supervisory authority and became Rosaviakosmos, which oversees
both the civilian aviation and space sector Yuri Koptev has headed it
since its formation in 1992. Russian military assets remain under the
control of the Russian Military Space Forces (VKS).
Apart
from the American and Russian space programs, the most visible space
achievements in recent years have been those of China. Since launching its
first satellite in 1970, China has steadily expanded its space program,
developing a large stable of launch vehicles and communications, weather,
scientific, and recoverable satellites. The country appears poised to
become the third nation (after the Soviet Union and the United States) to
launch a human into space, using its Shen Zhou spacecraft. The Chinese
National Space Administration and the China Aerospace Corporation
(formerly the Ministry of Aerospace Industry), both established in June
1993, and under the same management, currently manage Chinese civilian
space activities. Both share responsibility for policy-formulation and
policy implementation. The China Great Wall Industry Corporation handles
Chinese commercial activities.
The
space agency that has the most frequently used space delivery system is
the European Space Agency, an organization created by merging two older
international organizations, ESRO and ELDO. The European Space Research
Organization (ESRO) was formed by 10 nations (Belgium, Denmark, France,
Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom, and
West Germany) on June 14, 1962. In its early years, ESRO designed and
built scientific satellites that were launched into orbit by the United
States. In parallel, European nations also formed the European Launcher
Development Organization (ELDO) on March 29, 1962 to develop an indigenous
satellite launch capability. After a series of failures, ELDO and ESRO
combined to create ESA on April 30, 1975. By this time, three more
countries (Austria, Norway, and Ireland) had joined. Through ESA, Western
European countries have developed communications, weather, scientific, and
technology satellites and deep space probes. ESA's most famous creation is
the Ariane series of launch vehicles, first launched in December 1979.
Since then, more than 150 have been launched to deliver payloads into
space that belong to many countries and organizations around the world.
Once ESA
develops an Ariane launcher, it transfers operational control to a company
called Arianespace that offers the rocket for commercial use. French
companies have the largest stake in Ariane. By the turn of the millennium,
Arianespace had a dominating presence in the international market for
commercial satellite launch vehicles. ESA, based in Paris, France, also
continues work on more advanced space probes (such as the Huygens probe to
Saturn) and new launch vehicles (such as the Italy-led Vega launch
vehicle).
Japanese
space activities are managed by two separate organizations. The first is
the Institute of Space and Astronautical Sciences (ISAS) formed under the
aegis of Tokyo University in 1964. ISAS separated from the university and
became an independent government-funded organization on April 14, 1981.
The second institution is the National Space Development Agency (NASDA),
established on October 1, 1969. This was an official federally funded
agency aimed at using space to support Japan's national economy. While
ISAS focused on space science research, NASDA has typically focused on
applications satellites. Both have also developed their own satellite
launch vehicles.
ISAS
developed a series of small solid propellant rockets in the 1960s. Using
one of these, the Lambda L-4S, it launched Japan's first satellite, Ohsumi,
into space in 1970. Since then, ISAS has independently developed a large
family of solid-propellant launchers that continue to launch scientific
and deep space probes. NASDA's first satellite launch was in 1975 using
the N-1 rocket derived from the American Delta liquid propellant launch
vehicle. NASDA and ISAS are currently testing a new generation of launch
vehicles, including the H-II and M-V. Both NASDA and ISAS policies are
coordinated via the Japanese government's Space Activities Commission.
India is
the only developing country to have its own launch capability. Early
Indian space efforts, which began in the 1960s, were consolidated into a
single organization known as the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO)
on August 15, 1969. Later in 1972, the Indian government set up a Space
Commission and assigned its new Department of Space to coordinate national
space activities via ISRO. ISRO's first satellite, Aryabhatta, was
launched on a Russian rocket in 1975. In 1980, India used its own launch
vehicle, the SLV-3, to put the Rohini-1B satellite into orbit, thus
becoming the seventh nation in the world to acquire this capability. Since
then, ISRO has become even stronger by developing several powerful launch
vehicles and applications satellites designed to aid economic and social
development. ISRO's commercial operations are handled by Antrix Corp.
Ltd., established in November 1992, by ISRO.
The
Israeli government established the Israeli Space Agency (ISA) in 1983 as
part of the Israeli Defence Forces. The ISA has pursued space activities
in cooperation with Tel Aviv University, the National Committee for Space
Research of the Israeli Academy of Sciences and Humanities, and the Israel
Aircraft Industries. Israel launched its first satellite, Ofeq, in 1998
using the Shavit solid-propellant booster.
The
Brazilian space program was founded by the Group of Organizations of the
National Commission of Space Activities (GOCNAE), which was established on
August 3, 1961. The Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais (INPE)
succeeded GOCNAE in October 1990, which is the main institution via which
Brazil currently runs its space program. In cooperation with the Agencia
Espacial Brasileira (AEB), INPE develops satellites (such as the SCD) and
indigenous launch vehicles (such as the VLS).
Several
other industrialized and developing nations produce satellites, but unlike
the above listed nations, do not have their own launch vehicles. Instead,
they procure launch services from the United States, Russia, the ESA, or
commercial companies. These countries include Argentina, Australia,
Belgium, Canada, the Czech Republic, Egypt, Finland, France, Germany,
Iceland, Indonesia, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Malaysia, Mexico, the
Netherlands, Pakistan, the Philippines, Portugal, Saudi Arabia, South
Africa, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Taiwan, Thailand, Turkey,
Ukraine, the United Arab Emirates, and the United Kingdom.
Five of
these nations have major space programs. The French space program, the
largest in Europe, is run by the Centre National D'Études Spatiales (CNES),
formed in December 1961. The French have a prominent role in the European
Space Agency and are a major shareholder in Arianespace. France also
builds advanced remote sensing satellites, such as SPOT, for commercial
purposes. Two organizations, the part-government-funded German Aerospace
Research Establishment (DLR), founded on April 27, 1989, and the fully
governmental German Aerospace Agency (DARA), founded on December 24, 1988,
manage the German space program. The Canadian Space Agency (CSA), formed
on December 14, 1989, manages all Canadian participation in space
exploration such as the development of satellites and the robot arm for
the Space Shuttle. The Italian Space Agency (ASI) established in 1988
manages Italian space affairs. ASI has a major contribution to the
International Space Station and future European launch vehicles. The
Ukrainian government formed the National Space Agency of Ukraine (NKAU) on
March 2, 1992. Despite a vast space industry infrastructure, the Ukrainian
space program has a relatively low profile in the international space
market, although it commercially offers its Soviet-era Zenit launch
vehicle jointly with Russia.